Replica Designer Watches

2013-12-11

Research Spintronics demistified

2013/12/10

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Spins on a finite-size frustrated lattice:
a Mo₇₂Fe₃₀ supramolecular magnet
Source: ILL

Spintronics might be the future of electronics, but what is it?

In short, it is a way of getting over a fundamental limitation in electronics: that electrons have charge and every time a charge is moved to do something, some of the effort gets turned into heat.

Quite separately from charge, electrons have a property called spin, and it is this property that might one day be exploited in spintronics to move information without losing so much energy.

So, what is spin?

“An electron has charge which is electrical and spin which is magnetic. In spintronics, we would use spin in addition to charge,” Dr Paul Steffens, a neutron scientist studying magnetism at the ILL neutron lab in Grenoble. “Magnetism can come from loop of current: a loop of wire, or an electron circling an atom, or an electron’s magnetic moment. It is not completely absurd to think of spin as a little current loop. It is a picture that can help. Think of it as a tiny magnet which you can manipulate with a magnetic field.”

Spin is already used commercially, in ‘GMR’ read heads within hard disc drives.

“There are many things that can happen with spin. On a large scale, iron staying magnetic is the most useful example. Data storage on a hard disc with information in magnetic regions is on the limit of where quantum effects play a role, where we have to think in terms of quantum mechanics,” said Steffens.

For the purposes of spintronics, the spin of a particular electron can either be ‘spin up’ or ‘spin down’, and the handy thing about spin is that it can move around without capacitively coupling into the surroundings wasting energy.

“If you could just move the spin part of the electron, you would generate less heat, but if you only have one electron, you can’t move spin and not charge,” ILL theoretical physicist Dr Tim Ziman told Electronics Weekly. “If there are many electrons, we can move spin ups in one direction and spin downs in the other direction. Then, to a first approximation, spin is actually moving but there is no net movement of charge because there is no net movement of electrons.”

A first approximation?

“They do exchange charge and spin, but that is not the important thing,” said Ziman.

Charge current and spin current have different characteristics, he went on to explain: Charge current keeps on moving while spin current is at the mercy of ‘spin diffusion’ – the random flipping of spin states – which means net spin flow soon peters out.

Luckily, spin diffusion need not be a barrier to spintronics as, in good conditions, spin can travel over micrometres before it diffuses, which is plenty if spintronics is to follow the ever-smaller model of electronics. This does mean that data has to arrive and leave in electronic form, with suitable converters around the spintronics.

“One of the problems, which is partially solved, is to convert charge current into spin current and then detect spin as electrical polarisation,” said Ziman, whose is seeking ways to make strong spin currents: “I am looking at co-operative scattering, for example spin waves.”

‘Skew scattering’ one way of separating spin up and spin down electrons, said Ziman: “You need to do it efficiently. I don’t think anyone has made a useful circuit yet.”

Methods of both storing and moving information have been proposed and, with the less-than-perfect conversion available, “people have made devices in last five to ten years, and have integrated them into normal electronic circuits”, said Ziman.

Quantum computing

Spintronics is closely related to two other research fields, and developments in any of them can benefit all three.

One is quantum computing. “Devices are feasible. You want quantum interference; it is part of the same technology, at a similar stage, with a similar community working on it,” said Ziman.

The other is manipulating magnetic domain walls with electrical currents. “This is similar to spintronics, it is really part of it, for memory rather than logical operations. There is a lot of similar physics.”

Slightly less related is a push to move NMR – the body scanning technique – into the nano world. “It could revolutionise biology,” said Ziman.

Why do magnetics and spin scientist work at a neutron laboratory?

The answer is that neutrons have spin, but carry no charge.

Just as x-rays can reveal the structure of molecules and crystals – as they did with DNA – neutrons can reveal a material’s spin structure without being confused by its internal charge structure.

In the ILL case, the beam comes from a nuclear reactor and is the most powerful in the world, according to Ziman. It is around 1cm in diameter, and its diffraction is analysed after it has passed through a sample of the material under scrutiny.

“Neutrons are best for looking at the magnetic properties of bulk material. You can’t put a nanowire into a neutron beam and expect a result,” said Ziman. “Neutrons are also good for viewing domain walls, and exotic things like magnetic skyrmions which are the smallest domains and form lattices that could store data.”

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Business ST samples energy harvesting IC

2013/12/10

ST is sampling an energy harvesting chip which converts solar or thermal energy into electricity. Applications can vary from requirements for a few microwatts up to several milliwatts.

Production starts next quarter and it costs $1.15.

The SPV1050 can have both 1.8V and 3.3V regulators to power a companion microcontroller or wireless transmitter directly without requiring additional components.

Maximum Power-Point Tracking (MPPT) continuously optimises energy harvesting, or can be disabled.

The battery-charging circuitry supports a wide variety of battery types including lithium-ion and lithium-polymer, lithium thin-film solid state, NiMH and NiCd, as well as supercapacitors.

“Energy harvesting delivers environmental benefits and helps reduce equipment ownership costs, and is used increasingly as energy-conversion efficiency rises and typical system power demands fall,” says ST’s Matteo Lo Presti.

Inside the chip a buck-boost converter allows the device to connect to either TEG or indoor/outdoor solar-energy harvesting modules by providing a wide input-voltage range from 180mV to 8V.

Average operating efficiency of 90% allows fast battery charging even at low input power levels, while minimum MPPT accuracy of 90% maximizes energy extraction from solar or TEG sources.

The integrated battery-charging controller uses under-voltage and end-of-charge thresholds, and provides safe control logic to prevent excessive discharging for longer battery life.

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Recipe for a Universe: Apply heat and stir

When soup is heated, it starts to boil. When time and space are heated, an expanding universe can emerge, without requiring anything like a "Big Bang." This phase transition between a boring empty space and an expanding universe containing mass has now been mathematically described by a research team at the Vienna University of Technology, together with colleagues from Harvard, the MIT and Edinburgh. The idea behind this result is a remarkable connection between quantum field theory and Einstein's theory of relativity.

A Cookbook for Spacetime

Everybody knows of the transitions between liquid, solid and gaseous phases. But also time and space can undergo a phase transition, as the physicists Steven Hawking and Don Page pointed out in 1983. They calculated that empty space can turn into a black hole at a specific temperature.

Can a similar process create a whole expanding universe such as ours? Daniel Grumiller from the Vienna University of Technology looked into this, together with colleagues from the USA and Great Britain. Their calculations show that there is indeed a critical temperature at which an empty, flat spacetime turns into an expanding universe with mass. "The empty spacetime starts to boil, little bubbles form, one of which expands and eventually takes up all of spacetime," explains Grumiller.

For this to be possible, the universe has to rotate -- so the recipe for creating the universe is "apply heat and stir." However, the required rotation can be arbitrarily small. In a first step, a spacetime with only two spatial dimensions was considered. "But there is no reason why the same should not be true for a universe with three spatial dimensions," says Grumiller.

Looking for the Structure of the Universe

Our own universe does not seem to have come into existence this way. The phase-transition model is not meant to replace the theory of the Big Bang. "Today, cosmologists know a lot about the early universe -- we are not challenging their findings. But we are interested in the question, which phase transitions are possible for time and space and how the mathematical structure of spacetime can be described" says Grumiller.

The new theory is the logical next step after the so called "AdS-CFT correspondence," a conjecture put forward in 1997, which has strongly influenced fundamental physics research ever since. It describes a peculiar connection between theories of gravity and quantum field theories -- two areas which, at first glance, do not have much in common. In certain limiting cases, according to AdS-CFT correspondence, statements from quantum field theories can be translated into statements concerning gravitational theories and vice versa. This is almost as surprising as the idea of making statements about a stone falling to the ground by actually calculating the temperature of a hot gas. Two completely different areas are being connected -- but it works.

In this kind of correspondence, the quantum field theory is always described in one fewer dimension than the gravitational theory. This is called "holographic principle." Similar to a two dimensional hologram which can depict a three dimensional object, a quantum field theory with two spatial dimensions can describe a physical situation in three spatial dimensions.

A Correspondence Principle for Flat Spacetimes

To do this, the gravitational calculations usually have to be done in an exotic kind of geometry -- in so-called "Anti-de-Sitter-spaces," which are quite different from the flat geometry we are used to. However, it has been suspected for a while, that there may be a similar version of the "holographic principle" for flat spacetimes. But for a long time there haven't been any models showing this.

Last year, Daniel Grumiller and colleagues established such a model (in two spatial dimensions, for simplicity). This led to the current question; phase transitions in quantum field theories are well known. But for symmetry reasons this would mean that gravitational theories should exhibit phase transitions too.

"At first, this was a mystery for us," says Daniel Grumiller. "This would mean a phase transition between an empty spacetime and an expanding universe. To us, this sounded extremely implausible." But the calculations showed exactly that. "We are only beginning to understand these remarkable correspondence relations," says Daniel Grumiller. Which new ideas about our own universe can be derived from this, is hard to say -- only spacetime will tell.

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2013-12-10

Programmable Logic and Asic Xilinx launches 20nm device with 50 million gates

2013/12/10

Xilinx has announced its largest FPGA, a 4.4 million logic cell device.

The Virtex UltraScale VU440 is a 20nm device. It delivers 50 million equivalent Asic gates for next generation production and prototyping applications.

It has the bandwidth for single chip implementations of 400G MuxSAR, 400G Transponder and 400G MAC-to Interlaken bridge applications.

The UltraScale architecture is designed to provide up to 90% utilisation featuring next generation routing, ASIC-like clocking, power management, elimination of interconnect bottlenecks, and critical path optimizations.

The programmable architecture has wider multipliers, high speed memory cascading, 33G capable transceivers, and the addition of 100Gb/s Ethernet MAC and 150Gb/s Interlaken IP cores, said the supplier.

Xilinx UltraScale devices are supported in the Vivado Design Suite 2013.4 release and full product documentation is now available.

V irtex UltraScale devices will begin shipping in the first half of 2014.

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Business KKR et al selling out of NXP

2013/12/10

The private equity firms which bought NXP in 2006 are selling more of shares.

KKR, AlpInvest, Apax Partners, Bain Capital, and Silver Lake are selling another 25 million shares representing 9.7% of thr outstanding shares) through a secondary offering.

The private equity firms previously sold two tranches of 25 million shares each in September and March, and sold 30 million shares in February.

After the latest sale, the firms and their affiliates will collectively be left with a 14.8% stake in NXP.

When the private equity companies bought NXP they loaded it up with $6 billion of debt of which $3.7 billion still sits on the NXP balance sheet.

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In surprise finding, blood clots absorb bacterial toxin

Dec. 9, 2013 — Blood clots play an unexpected role in protecting the body from the deadly effects of bacteria by absorbing bacterial toxins, researchers at the University of California, Davis, have found. The research was published Dec. 2 in the journal PLoS ONE.

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"It's a significant addition to the short list of defenses that animals use to protect themselves against toxin-induced sepsis," said Peter Armstrong, professor of molecular and cellular biology at UC Davis and senior author on the paper.

Even with modern antibiotics, septic shock from bacterial infections afflicts about 300,000 people a year in the U.S., with a mortality rate of 30 to 50 percent. Septic shock is caused by Gram-negative bacteria, which release a toxin called lipopolysaccharide or endotoxin. In small amounts, lipopolysaccharide triggers inflammation. When infections with these bacteria get out of hand, lipopolysaccharide courses through the bloodstream, causing catastrophic damage to organs and tissues.

These toxins cause disease in a variety of animal species -- lipopolysaccharide is also toxic to both horseshoe crabs and lobsters, separated from humans by hundreds of millions of years of evolution. In humans and other mammals, blood clots quickly form from a mix of specialized blood cells and protein fibers. Arthropods like horseshoe crabs and lobsters can also form clots in response to injury, with a different mix of cells and proteins.

Clots protect and help to seal wounds, prevent blood or body fluids from leaking out and form a physical barrier that entangles and blocks bacteria from entering the body. The new study shows that they also actively soak up lipopolysaccharide, reducing its release from the wound site into the body, where it could cause disease or even death.

Armstrong's laboratory had previously developed fluorescent labels to show that a lipopolysaccharide-like molecule is present in chloroplasts, structures inside cells of green plants that carry out photosynthesis and are thought to be descended from bacteria. As he also studies the role of blood clots in resisting infections, Armstrong decided to test the same techniques on blood clots that had been exposed to bacteria or to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. The fluorescent probes lit up the clots, showing that the clot fibers bound lipopolysaccharide to their surfaces.

"I was ecstatic," Armstrong said. "It was one of those moments that makes the rest of the slogging worthwhile."

Armstrong and colleagues Margaret Armstrong at UC Davis and Frederick Rickles at George Washington University looked at clots of blood, or its equivalent, from humans, mice, lobsters and horseshoe crabs. In all four species, they found that fluorescently tagged lipopolysaccharide was bound to the fibers of the blood clot. The toxin was too tightly attached to be readily removed by chemical treatments that remove weakly bound macromolecules from proteins.

During a sabbatical leave in the laboratory of Dr. Bruce Furie at Beth Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard University, Armstrong was also able to film clots in blood vessels of live mice and showed that these in vivo clots took up lipopolysaccharide in real time. These in vivo experiments, he said, confirm the bench-top observations and offer new insights into the pathology of sepsis.

One of the deadly consequences of septic shock is disseminated intravascular coagulation, when blood clots form rapidly throughout the body. But the new results suggest that on a small and local scale, this might be part of a protective mechanism against sepsis -- these intravascular clots can soak up quantities of lipopolysaccharide from the blood. They also show that rather than being a simple physical barrier, blood clots play an active and dynamic role in protecting the body from infections.

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Neural prosthesis restores behavior after brain injury

Ultimately, the team hopes to develop a device that rapidly and substantially improves function after brain injury in humans. There is no such commercial treatment for the 1.5 million Americans, including soldiers in Afghanistan and Iraq, who suffer traumatic brain injuries (TBI), or the nearly 800,000 stroke victims who suffer weakness or paralysis in the United States, annually.

The prosthesis, called a brain-machine-brain interface, is a closed-loop microelectronic system. It records signals from one part of the brain, processes them in real time, and then bridges the injury by stimulating a second part of the brain that had lost connectivity.

Their work is published online this week in the science journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

"If you use the device to couple activity from one part of the brain to another, is it possible to induce recovery from TBI? That's the core of this investigation," said Pedram Mohseni, professor of electrical engineering and computer science at Case Western Reserve, who built the brain prosthesis.

"We found that, yes, it is possible to use a closed-loop neural prosthesis to facilitate repair of a brain injury," he said.

The researchers tested the prosthesis in a rat model of brain injury in the laboratory of Randolph J. Nudo, professor of molecular and integrative physiology at the University of Kansas. Nudo mapped the rat's brain and developed the model in which anterior and posterior parts of the brain that control the rat's forelimbs are disconnected.

Atop each animal's head, the brain-machine-brain interface is a microchip on a circuit board smaller than a quarter connected to microelectrodes implanted in the two brain regions.

The device amplifies signals, which are called neural action potentials and produced by the neurons in the anterior of the brain. An algorithm separates these signals, recorded as brain spike activity, from noise and other artifacts. With each spike detected, the microchip sends a pulse of electric current to stimulate neurons in the posterior part of the brain, artificially connecting the two brain regions.

Two weeks after the prosthesis had been implanted and run continuously, the rat models using the full closed-loop system had recovered nearly all function lost due to injury, successfully retrieving a food pellet close to 70 percent of the time, or as well as normal, uninjured rats. Rat models that received random stimuli from the device retrieved less than half the pellets and those that received no stimuli retrieved about a quarter of them.

"A question still to be answered is must the implant be left in place for life?" Mohseni said. "Or can it be removed after two months or six months, if and when new connections have been formed in the brain?"

Brain studies have shown that, during periods of growth, neurons that regularly communicate with each other develop and solidify connections.

Mohseni and Nudo said they need more systematic studies to determine what happens in the brain that leads to restoration of function. They also want to determine if there is an optimal time window after injury in which they must implant the device in order to restore function.

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New drug approach could lead to cures for wide range of diseases

Dec. 9, 2013 — A team led by a longtime Oregon Health & Science University researcher has demonstrated in mice what could be a revolutionary new technique to cure a wide range of human diseases -- from cystic fibrosis to cataracts to Alzheimer's disease -- that are caused by "misfolded" protein molecules.

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Misfolded protein molecules, caused by gene mutation, are capable of maintaining their function but are misrouted within the cell and can't work normally, thus causing disease. The OHSU team discovered a way to use small molecules that enter cells, fix the misfolded proteins and allow the proteins to move to the correct place and function normally again.

The researchers were led by P. Michael Conn, Ph.D., who was a senior scientist in reproductive sciences and neuroscience at OHSU's Oregon National Primate Research Center and professor of physiology and pharmacology, cell biology and development and obstetrics and gynecology at OHSU for the past 19 years. This month, Conn joined Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center as senior vice president for research and associate provost.

The team's work will be published this week in the early online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The work was the culmination of 13 years of work on the process by Conn and Jo Ann Janovick, former senior research associate at the ONPRC who is now also at TTUHSC. Richard R. Behringer, Ph.D., from the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, M. David Stewart, Ph.D., from the University of Houston, and Douglas Stocco, Ph.D., and Pulak Manna, Ph.D., from the department of biochemistry/microbiology at TTUHSC, also contributed to the work.

Conn and his team perfected the process in mice, curing them of a form of disease that causes males to be unable to father offspring. The identical disease occurs in humans and Conn believes the same concept can work to cure human disease as well.

"The opportunity here is going to be enormous," said Conn, "because so many human diseases are caused by misfolded proteins. The ability of these drugs -- called 'pharmacoperones' -- to rescue misfolded proteins and return them to normalcy could someday be an underlying cure to a number of diseases. Drugs that act by regulating the trafficking of molecules within cells are a whole new way of thinking about treating disease."

Proteins must fold into three-dimensional shapes in precise ways to do their work within human cells. Before recent discoveries about misfolded proteins, scientists believed that proteins that were inactive were intrinsically non-functional. But work by Conn and others revealed that, when the proteins are misfolded, the cell's "quality control system" misroutes them within the cell and they cease to function only because of that misrouting. Pharmacoperones can fix misfolded proteins and thus make them functional again.

Scientists had in recent years observed this process in cells under a microscope. The work of Conn's team is the first time the process has worked in a living laboratory animal.

"These findings show how valuable laboratory animals are in identifying new treatments for human disease," said Conn. "We expect that these studies will change the way drug companies look for drugs, since current screening procedures would have missed many useful pharmacoperone drugs."

A wide range of diseases are caused by an accumulation of misfolded proteins. Among the diseases are neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. Other diseases include certain types of diabetes, inherited cataracts and cystic fibrosis.

Conn said the next steps will be clinical trials to see whether the same technique can work in humans.

The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health (grants OD012220 and DK85040), the Ben F. Love Endowment, the American Heart Association, the Texas Heart Institute and the Robert A. Welch Foundation.

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Scientists offer new insights on controlling nanoparticle stability

Dec. 9, 2013 — University of Oregon chemists studying the structure of ligand-stabilized gold nanoparticles have captured fundamental new insights about their stability. The information, they say, could help to maintain a desired, integral property in nanoparticles used in electronic devices, where stability is important, or to design them so they readily condense into thin films for such things as inks or catalysts in electronic or solar devices.

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In a project -- detailed in the Nov. 27 issue of the Journal of Physical Chemistry C -- doctoral student Beverly L. Smith and James E. Hutchison, who holds the Lokey-Harrington Chair in Chemistry at the UO, analyzed how nanoparticle size and molecules on their surfaces, called ligands, influence structural integrity under rising temperatures.

They focused on nanoparticles less than two nanometers in diameter -- the smallest studied to date -- to better understand structural stability of these tiny particles being engineered for use in electronics, medicine and other materials. Whether a nanoparticle needs to remain stable or condense depends on how they are being used. Those used as catalysts in industrial chemical processing or quantum dots for lighting need to remain intact; if they are precursors for coatings in solar devices or for printing ink, nanoparticles need to be unstable so they sinter and condense into a thin mass.

For their experiments, Smith and Hutchison produced gold nanoparticles in four well-controlled sizes, ranging from 0.9 nanometers to 1.5 nanometers, and analyzed ligand loss and sintering with thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry, and examined the resulting films by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. As the nanoparticles were heated at 5 degrees Celsius per minute, from room temperature to 600 degrees Celsius, the nanoparticles began to transform near 150 degrees Celsius.

The researchers found that smaller nanoparticles have better structural integrity than larger-sized particles that have been tested. In other words, Hutchison said, they are less likely to lose their ligands and bind together. "If you have unstable particles, then the property you want is fleeting," he said. "Either the light emission degrades over time and you're done, or the metal becomes inactive and you're done. In that case, you want to preserve the function and keep the particles from aggregating."

The opposite is desired for Hutchison and others working in the National Science Foundation-funded Center for Sustainable Materials Chemistry, a multi-universities collaboration led by the UO and Oregon State University. Researchers there are synthesizing nanoparticles as precursors for thin films.

"We want solution precursors that can lead to inorganic thin films for use in electronics and solar industries," said Hutchison, who also is a member of the UO Materials Science Institute. "In this case, we want to know how to keep our nanoparticles or other precursors stable enough in solution so that we can work with them, using just a tiny amount of additional energy to make them unstable so that they condense into a film -- where the property that you want comes from the extended solid that is generated, not from the nanoparticles themselves."

The research, Hutchison said, identified weak sites on nanoparticles where ligands might pop off. If only a small amount do so, he said, separate nanoparticles are more likely to come together and begin the sintering process to create thin films. "That's a really stabilizing effect that, in turn, kicks out all these ligands on the outside," he said. "The surface area decreases quickly and the particles get bigger, but now all the extra ligands gets excluded into the film and then, over time, the ligands vaporize and go away."

The coming apart, however, is a "catastrophic failure" if protecting against sintering is the goal. It may be possible to use the findings, he said, to explore ways to strengthen nanoparticles, such as developing ligands that bind in at least two sites or avoiding volatile ligands.

The process, as studied, produced porous gold films. "A next step might be to study how to manipulate the process to get a more dense film if that is desired," Hutchison said. Understanding how nanoparticles respond to certain conditions, such as changing temperatures, he added, may help researchers reduce waste in the manufacturing process.

"Researchers at the University of Oregon are re-engineering the science, manufacturing and business processes behind critical products," said Kimberly Andrews Espy, vice president for research and innovation and dean of the UO Graduate School. "This research analyzing the structural stability of nanoparticles by Dr. Hutchison and his team has the potential to improve the engineering of electronics, medicine and other materials, helping to foster a sustainable future for our planet and its people."

Smith, the paper's lead author, received a master's degree in chemistry in 2009 from the UO. She now is a doctoral student in Hutchison's lab. During the initial stages of the research, she was supported by the NSF's Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT) program. Funding from the Air Force Research Laboratory (grant No. FA8650-05-1-5041) to Hutchison also supported the research. Hutchison also is a member of both the Oregon Nanoscience and Microtechnologies Institute (ONAMI) and Oregon BEST (Oregon Built Environment & Sustainable Technologies Center), which are state signature research initiatives.

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Ancient crater could hold clues about moon's mantle

Researchers from Brown University and the University of Hawaii have found some mineralogical surprises in the Moon's largest impact crater.

Data from the Moon Mineralogy Mapper that flew aboard India's Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter shows a diverse mineralogy in the subsurface of the giant South Pole Aitken basin. The differing mineral signatures could be reflective of the minerals dredged up at the time of the giant impact 4 billion years ago, the researchers say. If that's true, then the South Pole Aitken (SPA) basin could hold important information about the Moon's interior and the evolution of its crust and mantle.

The study, led by Brown graduate student Dan Moriarty, is published in online early view in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets.

At 2,500 kilometers across, the SPA is the largest impact basin on the Moon and perhaps the largest in the solar system. Impacts of this size turn tons of solid rock into molten slush. It has been assumed generally that the melting process would obliterate any distinct signatures of pre-existing mineralogical diversity through extensive mixing, but this latest research suggests that might not be the case.

The study looked at smaller craters within the larger SPA basin made by impacts that happened millions of years after the giant impact that formed the basin. Those impacts uncovered material from deep within the basin, offering important clues about what lies beneath the surface. Specifically, the researchers looked at the central peaks of four craters within the basin. Central peaks form when material under the impact zone rebounds, forming an upraised rock formation in the middle of the crater. The tops of those peaks represent pristine material from below the impact zone.

Using Moon Mineralogy Mapper data, the researchers looked at the light reflected from each of the four central peaks. The spectra of reflected light give scientists clues about the makeup of the rocks. The spectra showed substantial differences in composition from peak to peak. Some crater peaks were richer in magnesium than others. One of the four craters, located toward the outer edge of the basin, contained several distinct mineral deposits within its own peak, possibly due to sampling a mixture of both upper and lower crust or mantle materials.

The varying mineralogy in these central peaks suggests that the SPA subsurface is much more diverse than previously thought.

"Previous studies have suggested that all the central peaks look very similar, and that was taken as evidence that everything's the same across the basin," Moriarty said. "We looked in a little more detail and found significant compositional differences between these central peaks. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper has very high spatial and spectral resolution. We haven't really been able to look at the Moon in this kind of detail before."

The next step is figuring out where that diversity comes from.

It's possible that the distinct minerals formed as the molten rock from the SPA impact cooled. Recent research from Brown and elsewhere suggests that such mineral formation in impact melt is possible. However, it's also possible that the mineral differences reflect differences in rock types that were there before the giant SPA impact. Moriarty is currently undertaking a much larger survey of SPA craters in the hope of identifying the source of the diversity. If indeed the diversity reflects pre-existing material, the SPA could hold important clues about the composition of the Moon's lower crust and mantle.

"If you do the impact scaling from models, [the SPA impact] should have excavated into the mantle," Moriarty said. "We think the upper mantle is rich in a mineral called olivine, but we don't see much olivine in the basin. That's one of the big mysteries about the South Pole Aitken basin. So one of the things we're trying to figure out is how deep did the impact really excavate. If it melted and excavated any material from the mantle, why aren't we seeing it?"

If the impact did excavate mantle material, and it doesn't contain olivine, that would have substantial implications for models of how the Moon was formed, Moriarty said.

Much more research is needed to begin to answer those larger questions. But this initial study helps raise the possibility that some of the original mantle mineralogy, if excavated, may be preserved in the Moon's largest impact basin.

Carle Pieters, professor of geological sciences at Brown, and Peter Isaacson from the University of Hawaii were also authors on the paper. The work was supported by NASA's Lunar Advanced Science and Exploration Research (LASER) program and the NASA Lunar Science Institute (NLSI).

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