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2013-08-01

Universal law for light absorption in 2-D semiconductors

Working with ultrathin membranes of the semiconductor indium arsenide, a team of researchers with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)'s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab) has discovered a quantum unit of photon absorption, which they have dubbed "A_Q," that should be general to all 2D semiconductors, including compound semiconductors of the III-V family that are favored for solar films and optoelectronic devices. This discovery not only provides new insight into the optical properties of 2D semiconductors and quantum wells, it should also open doors to exotic new optoelectronic and photonic technologies.

"We used free-standing indium arsenide membranes down to three nanometers in thickness as a model material system to accurately probe the absorption properties of 2D semiconductors as a function of membrane thickness and electron band structure," says Ali Javey, a faculty scientist in Berkeley Lab's Materials Sciences Division and a professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California (UC) Berkeley. "We discovered that the magnitude of step-wise absorptance in these materials is independent of thickness and band structure details."

Javey is one of two corresponding authors of a paper describing this research in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). The paper is titled "Quantum of optical absorption in two-dimensional semiconductors." Eli Yablonovitch, an electrical engineer who also holds joint appointments with Berkeley Lab and UC Berkeley, is the other corresponding author. Co-authors are Hui Fang, Hans Bechtel, Elena Plis, Michael Martin and Sanjay Krishna.

Previous work has shown that graphene, a two-dimensional sheet of carbon, has a universal value of light absorption. Javey, Yablonovitch and their colleagues have now found that a similar generalized law applies to all 2D semiconductors. This discovery was made possible by a unique process that Javey and his research group developed in which thin films of indium arsenide are transferred onto an optically transparent substrate, in this case calcium fluoride.

"This provided us with ultrathin membranes of indium arsenide, only a few unit cells in thickness, that absorb light on a substrate that absorbed no light," Javey says. "We were then able to investigate the optical absorption properties of membranes that ranged in thickness from three to 19 nanometers as a function of band structure and thickness."

Using the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) capabilities of Beamline 1.4.3 at Berkeley Lab's Advanced Light Source, a DOE national user facility, Javey, Yablonovitch and their co-authors measured the magnitude of light absorptance in the transition from one electronic band to the next at room temperature. They observed a discrete stepwise increase at each transition from indium arsenide membranes with an A_Qvalue of approximately 1.7-percent per step.

"This absorption law appears to be universal for all 2D semiconductor systems," says Yablonovitch. "Our results add to the basic understanding of electron-photon interactions under strong quantum confinement and provide a unique insight toward the use of 2D semiconductors for novel photonic and optoelectronic applications."

This research was supported by DOE's Office of Science and the National Science Foundation.

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为什么全世界只有中国人最爱玉呢？

中国人对玉的特殊爱好自古有之，喜爱玉甚于黄金和其它玉石，在古代 “ 君子无故，玉不去身，君子与玉比德焉 ” ，并以玉的温润色泽代表仁慈、坚韧质地象征智慧，不伤人的棱角表示公平正义，敲击时发出的清脆舒畅的乐音是廉直美德的反应。正因为此，自古以来得到人们由衷的偏爱。

玉，都是古老的。世界上最精彩的玉，产于新疆和阗。凝固的玉的龙脉，在大山的腹中，深藏了亿万年。这玉的龙脉是大自然最精彩的结晶。随着天地沧桑，一部分玉的龙脉破山而出，裸露于天地风雨冰雪之间，又呈现出别一种玉的资质。经历了风刀霜剑的挥斫，一部分玉滚落在山涧、河流之中，这玉是一大群星星般的魂魄，人们称之为“仔玉”。这玉是玉的龙脉的孙儿，最具生命力量又历经磨砺。这玉彻心彻骨地和光同尘，与风雨雷电，水火冰雪，相亲相融，是真正承受了天地灵气的人间精魂。玉是大自然对于人类最美好的馈赠，可惜只有中国人对它怦然心动，因为只有中国人发觉了玉的美好，而且倾心倾情。 ca9d80163ed7ad5e5aec3dc78c3aa373_thumb
“ 宁为玉碎，不为瓦全 ” 。这正是玉美的 “ 人化 ” ，它象征高尚的人格，君子的气节，优秀的品德，以及生活的理想，玉的美在深化着人的灵魂。
“ 玉不琢，不成器 ” 。这句话已超越出咏物范围，而成了早就人才的箴言。
“ 和氏之壁 ” ，讲述的何尝是一块玉的故事！歌颂的未必只是卞和识玉的才智，他为了一块 “ 楚山璞 ” 而不畏刖刑，失双脚！多么感天动地的精神！这是在讴歌我们中华民族的坚韧精神和不屈不挠的意志！也是从几千年前哲人口中发出的谆谆告诫： “ 识物，识人！ ”
“ 完璧归赵 ” ，记载的何尝只是蔺相如出使秦国的故事，它颂扬的是一种玉的精神，是人类恪守信约的美德和舍生取义的情操。
玉，因其质美，色美，触美，音美，而在石中称王，为人们所喜爱 . 玉是自然的象征，它集聚是着天、地、虹、日、月的精华，是中国的宇宙观念。它是精神，意念，理想，更是中华民族对美的追求和升华。

生成了亿万年的玉，遇到了中国人之后，才变成了通灵宝玉。而具有人类所有的美好品性的中国人，把玉看作了民族的精魂。因为玉也具备了人类所向往的所有的美好的品性，温文、宁静、含蓄、纯净、坚贞和正气。
中国人爱玉，不仅仅是因为它的稀有或色泽美丽的外观，而是有着更深一层的美学价值：因为玉凝结着人们深深的感情 —— 对故乡的怀念，对祖先的崇拜。这种恋乡怀祖之情，培养了中华民族的人格，孕育着中国传统美学；这个美的传统，一直沿续了数千年，始终焕发着不朽的光彩。
“君子比德于玉”，是中国人一句古训，是中国人与玉一见倾心的真情流泻。中国人活着，像玉一样，去世了，最神圣的悼念，也是“生刍一束，其人如玉”。玉最让人称道的品质还在于玉永远不折不挠。“宁为玉碎，不为瓦全”，是玉最让中国人感动的品性。玉碎了，碎了还是玉！中国人把玉看作了民族魂，近百年不折不挠奋斗，中国人有的就是一种“宁为玉碎，不为瓦全的精神，在这个世界上维持着自己的尊严。具有玉的精神的中国人，是永远也不可战胜的。

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综上所述得到的结论是以下这么几个：

第一，先人之影响．远古时期人们就经常将玉器作为祭祀祖宗和神灵的礼器，这种用玉的传统影响良久．

第二，儒家崇尚＂君子比德于玉＂思想的深远影响．孔子说，玉体现了君子所有的美德，玉就是美德的化身，这时它就已经远远不是普通的石头了．只要是自认为具有君子品德的人，都渴望得到一块美玉．甚至在一段时间内，佩玉品相的好坏甚至与佩玉之人品德的高低相联系．

第三，汉代以后玉能辟邪护佑思想的影响．汉代的人们给玉赋予了一种神奇的功能，认为玉石能有避邪和保佑人们平安的功能，所以很多人都祈望自己能够挂一块玉佩以得到神灵保佑．

第四，美玉的保值增值功能的影响．这些年玉石和玉器的市场价值涨幅惊人，也是导致现如今人们钟爱购买和收藏玉器的一个重要原因．但是，这一影响，是绝对地建立在上述三种影响因素之上的，因为没有先人影响、儒家文化影响、祈求神灵护佑思想的存在，就不可能有那么多人对玉石和玉器趋之若鹜，也不会使玉石玉器价格快速上涨．

TAG:中国人好玉最爱玉玉玉器玉的知识

Stem cells in urine easy to isolate and have potential for numerous therapies

July 31, 2013 — Could harvesting stem cells for therapy one day be as simple as asking patients for a urine sample? Researchers at Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center's Institute for Regenerative Medicine and colleagues have identified stem cells in urine that can be directed to become multiple cell types.

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"These cells can be obtained through a simple, non-invasive low-cost approach that avoids surgical procedures," said Yuanyuan Zhang, M.D., Ph.D., assistant professor of regenerative medicine and senior researcher on the project.

Reporting online in the journal Stem Cells, the team successfully directed stem cells from urine to become bladder-type cells, such as smooth muscle and urothelial, the cells that line the bladder. But the urine-derived cells could also form bone, cartilage, fat, skeletal muscle, nerve, and endothelial cells, which line blood vessels. The multipotency of the cells suggests their use in a variety of therapies.

"These stem cells represent virtually a limitless supply of autologous cells for treating not only urology-related conditions such as kidney disease, urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction, but could be used in other fields as well," said Zhang. "They could also potentially be used to engineer replacement bladders, urine tubes and other urologic organs."

Being able to use a patient's own stem cells for therapy is considered advantageous because they do not induce immune responses or rejection. However, because tissue-specific cells are a very small subpopulation of cells, they can be difficult to isolate from organs and tissues.

Zhang's team first identified the cells, which are a small subset of the many cells found in urine, in 2006. The current research builds on earlier studies by confirming the multipotency of the cells. In addition, the research found that unlike iPS cells or embryonic stem cells, the urine derived-stem cells do not form tumors when implanted in the body, indicating they may be safe for use in patients.

The research involved obtaining urine samples from 17 healthy individuals ranging in age from five to 75 years. Isolating the cells from urine involves minimal processing, according to the authors. Next, they evaluated the cells' ability to become multiple cell types.

Importantly, the cells differentiated into the three tissue layers (endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm) that are a hallmark of true stem cells and also differentiated into the specific cell types mentioned earlier.

Next, the researchers placed cells that had been differentiated into smooth muscle and urothelial cells onto scaffolds made of pig intestine. When implanted in mice for one month, the cells formed multi-layer, tissue-like structures.

The urine-derived stem cells have markers of mesenchymal cells, which are adult stem cells from connective tissue such as bone marrow. They also have markers for pericytes, a subset of mesenchymal cells found in small blood vessels.

Where do the cells come from? Researchers suspect that the cells originate from the upper urinary tract, including the kidney. Female study participants who had received kidney transplants from male donors were found to have the y chromosome in their urine-derived stem cells, suggesting the kidney as the source of the cells.

"Identifying the origins of the cells will lead to a better understanding of the biology of this multipotent population of mesenchymal cells within the urinary tract system," said Zhang.

Co-researchers were Shantaram Bharadwaj, Ph.D., Guihua Liu, M.D., Ph.D., Yingai Shi, M.D., Ph.D., Rongpei Wu, M.D., Ph.D., Bin Yang, M.D., Ph.D., Anthony Atala, M.D., and Jan Rohozinski, Ph.D ., Wake Forest Baptist; Tong-chan He, M.D., Ph.D., the University of Chicago Medical Center; Yuxin Fan, M.D., Ph.D., and Xinyan Lu, M.D., Baylor College of Medicine; Xiaobo Zhou, Ph.D., the Methodist Hospital Research Institute; and Hong Liu, Ph.D., University of Oklahoma.

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How to put a human on Mars, the Imperial approach Imperial College London Universities - Electronics Research

July 31, 2013

Imperial College Mars - Professor Mark Sephton This is an interesting one. Imperial College London is highlighting some of its academics have helped the BBC to design a mock mission to Mars, for the five part programme How to put a human on Mars.

The aim of the series is examine the design challenges of such missions, such as building a spacecraft that can create artificial gravity on the voyage.

For example, Dr Tom Pike, from the Department Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Professor Mark Sephton (pictured right), from the Department Earth Science and Engineering, and Dr Simon Foster and Martin Archer from the Department of Physics were all involved. Ryan Robinson, from the National Heart & Lung Institute, also demonstrated the effects of weightlessness on the body.

Imperial writes:

The BBC approached Imperial because of its academic expertise in the field of space research. One of the academics involved in the making of the BBC programme was Dr Tom Pike, from the Department Electrical and Electronic Engineering. He has previously worked on two NASA missions to the red planet.
The series explores some of the design challenges of the missions including building a spacecraft that can create artificial gravity on the voyage to prevent muscle wastage in the crew. The researchers also discuss ways of keeping astronauts protected during the voyage from radiation from the Sun, and the challenges of landing a crew safely in Mars’ thin atmosphere.

The documentary was to air on the BBC News channel and BBC World News.

How to put a human on mars

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Physicists discover theoretical possibility of large, hollow magnetic cage molecules

Approximately 25 years ago, scientists first made the discovery of C₆₀ fullerene -- better known as the Buckminster Fullerene -- a molecule composed of 60 carbon molecules that formed a hollow cage. Due to its unique hollow cage structure the molecule offers serious technological potential because it could hold other atoms or small molecules inside, and therefore, be used in applications such as drug delivery.

That potential has since spurred worldwide interest among scientists who have been searching for similar molecules. Although some hollow cage structures have been found, none of them is magnetic. Magnetic properties of the structure are of particular interest because a hollow magnetic structure carrying an embedded atom or molecule can be guided by an external magnetic field and may serve as an effective vehicle for targeted drug delivery.

In a new study, published online on July 22 in The Journal of Chemical Physics, two VCU scientists employing state-of-the-art theoretical methods show that magnetic hollow cages larger than the original C₆₀ fullerene that carry giant magnetic moments are possible. A magnetic moment refers to the measure of the magnetic strength of a cluster.

"The potential benefit of this finding is that it provides a route to the synthesis of molecular magnets with colossal magnetic moments," said co-lead investigator Puru Jena, Ph.D., distinguished professor of physics in the VCU College of Humanities and Sciences. Jena collaborated with Menghao Wu, Ph.D., co-author of the paper and a postdoctoral scholar in the VCU Department of Physics.

"These molecules can be used for targeted non-invasive drug delivery. When assembled, the molecules can also form new high strength magnets for device application," Jena said.

According to Jena, the pair of VCU researchers demonstrated the magnetic moment of the molecule by focusing on hetero-atomic clusters consisting of transition metal atoms such as cobalt (Co) and manganese (Mn) and carbon (C) atoms. In particular, Co₁₂C₆, Mn₁₂C₆, and Mn₂₄C₁₈ clusters consisting of 12 cobalt and six carbon atoms, 12 manganese and six carbon atoms, and 24 manganese and 18 carbon atoms, respectively, carry magnetic moments as large as 14, 38 and 70 Bohr magnetons. In comparison, the magnetic moment of an iron (Fe) atom in crystalline iron is 2.2 Bohr magnetons.

According to Jena, the team is still early in its discovery process.

"There is a long way to go. Experiments first have to be carried out to prove the predictions of our theory," said Jena.

"Ways must be found to synthesize large quantities of these molecules and study their magnetic properties once they are assembled. Finally, these molecules need to be functionalized by embedding desired atoms/molecules for practical applications."

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Dawn of carnivores explains animal boom in distant past

July 31, 2013 — A science team that includes researchers from Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego has linked increasing oxygen levels and the rise and evolution of carnivores (meat eaters) as the force behind a broad explosion of animal species and body structures millions of years ago.

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Led by Erik Sperling of Harvard University, the scientists analyzed how low oxygen zones in modern oceans limit the abundance and types of carnivores to help lead them to the cause of the "Cambrian radiation," a historic proliferation of animals 500-540 million years ago that resulted in the animal diversity seen today. The study is published in the July 29 early online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Although the cause of the influx of oxygen remains a matter a scientific controversy, Sperling called the Cambrian radiation that followed "the most significant evolutionary event in the history of animals."

"During the Cambrian period essentially every major animal body plan -- from arthropods to mollusks to chordates, the phylum to which humans belong -- appeared in the fossil record," said Sperling, who is scheduled to join Scripps as a postdoctoral researcher through National Science Foundation support. The authors linked this proliferation of life to the evolution of carnivorous feeding modes, which require higher oxygen concentrations. Once oxygen increased, animals started consuming other animals, stimulating the Cambrian radiation through an escalatory predator-prey "arms race."

Lisa Levin, a professor of biological oceanography at Scripps, along with graduate student researcher Christina Frieder, contributed to the study by providing expertise on the fauna of the ocean's low-oxygen zones, areas that have been increasing in recent decades due to a variety of factors. While the Cambrian radiation exploded with new species and diversification, Levin believes this study suggests the reverse may ensue as oxygen declines and oxygen minimum zones expand.

"This paper uses modern oxygen gradients and their effects on marine worms to understand past evolutionary events" said Levin, director of Scripps's Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation and a 1982 Scripps graduate. "However, the study of oxygen's role in the past is also going to help us understand the effects of and manage for changes in ocean oxygen in the future."

As part of the research study, Sperling spent time at Scripps working with Levin and Frieder. He also participated in the San Diego Coastal Expedition (bit.ly/sdcoastex), a cruise led by Frieder aboard the Scripps/U.S. Navy research vessel Melville and funded by the UC Ship Funds program, which offers students unique access to at-sea training and research.

In addition to Sperling, Frieder, and Levin, coauthors of the paper include Akkur Raman of Andhra University (India) and Peter Girguis and Andrew Knoll of Harvard. Funding for the study was provided by Ministry of Earth Sciences, New Delhi, Agouron Geobiology, the National Science Foundation, and NASA.

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2013-07-31

Raspberry Pi cooks up the Picrowave Raspberry Pi Gadget Master

2013/07/31

Raspberry Pi microwave How does the saying go – “Set a thief to catch a thief”? Well, this one caught my eye – use a Raspberry Pi to cook a Raspberry pie! It’s a Pi-powered Microwave, that knows how to cook your food and that even talks to you.

It was highlighted on the element14.com website, and is the work of one Nathan Broadbent. He was inspired by a post on Reddit, titled: Food items should have QR codes that instruct the microwave exactly what to do. Like high for 2 minutes, let stand 1 minute, medium 1 minutes…

He took this as a challenge, and – armed with a Raspberry Pi – went to work…

But what can a Pi can bring to electromagnetic radiation-based cooking? Well, added features of the “Picrowave” that he lists include:

Re-designed touchpad
Nicer sounds
Clock is automatically updated from the internet
Can be controlled with voice commands
Can use a barcode scanner to look up cooking instructions from an online database
There weren’t any online microwave cooking databases around, so I made one: http://microwavecookingdb.com
The microwave has a web page so you can control it from your phone (why not), and set up cooking instructions for products
Tweets after it’s finished cooking something (See https://twitter.com/rbmicrowave)

Check it out in action below:

Also, do see his website, the Raspberry Pi Microwave section. There is a lot of detailed information, including a look at the PCB, how he dealt with the old touchpad overlay, his management of registeers, using the WiringPi library, and much more…

For example, Nathan writes:

I used shift registers and optocouplers to control the touchpad pins. To listen for touchpad presses, an output shift register scans one line at a time on the first touchpad layer, and an input shift register listens for connections to the second layer.
I unsoldered the touchpad connector from the original circuit board, and replaced it with a row of pin headers. I then used the original touchpad connector on my PCB, so that my circuit acts as a kind of proxy for button presses.

Hide, ambush, kill, eat: The giant water bug Lethocerus patruelis kills a fish

Lethocerus patruelis is a member of the family Belostomatidae also known as electric light bugs or toe biters. These bugs are fierce predators which stalk, capture and feed on aquatic crustaceans, fish and amphibians. When they strike, they inject strong digestive saliva, sucking out the liquefied remains to feed. This powerful hunting tool gave the family its common name, referring to the extremely painful bite from the Belostomatidae members. Their bite is considered one of the most painful that can be ever inflicted by any insect but it is of no medical significance.

During their study of the giant water bug N. Simov and M. Langourov from the study team had the unique chance to witness and record on video the vicious predatory practices of the species. In the recorded material, a larva uses the stems of a water plant to stalk and ambush its unsuspicious pray. The giant water bug larva can be seen storming from its cover and catching and injecting saliva into a small fish.

During the last ten years, many new findings of L. patruelis were made by the team in Southern Bulgaria, providing evidence that the giant water bug is expanding its territory northwards. Such a wide and abundant distribution of the species in these regions would be a further sign of the recent changes of European bug fauna caused by climate change and an important clue for the effects of global warming.

Video: http://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/pub/59841.php?from=245631

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Could planting trees in the desert mitigate climate change?

July 31, 2013 — As the world starts feeling the effects of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and consequent global temperature rise, researchers are looking for a Plan B to mitigate climate change. A group of German scientists has now come up with an environmentally friendly method that they say could do just that. The technique, dubbed carbon farming, consists in planting trees in arid regions on a large scale to capture CO₂.

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They publish their study today in Earth System Dynamics, a journal of the European Geosciences Union (EGU).

"Carbon farming addresses the root source of climate change: the emission of carbon dioxide by human activities," says first-author Klaus Becker of the University of Hohenheim in Stuttgart.

"Nature does it better," adds Becker's colleague Volker Wulfmeyer, "if we understand and can make use of it in a sustainable manner."

When it comes to sequestering carbon from the atmosphere, the team shows that Jatropha curcas does it better. This small tree is very resistant to aridity so it can be planted in hot and dry land in soil unsuitable for food production. The plant does need water to grow though, so coastal areas where desalinated seawater can be made available are ideal.

"To our knowledge, this is the first time experts in irrigation, desalination, carbon sequestration, economics and atmospheric sciences have come together to analyse the feasibility of a large-scale plantation to capture carbon dioxide in a comprehensive manner. We did this by applying a series of computer models and using data from Jatropha curcas plantations in Egypt, India and Madagascar," says Wulfmeyer.

The new Earth System Dynamics study shows that one hectare of Jatropha curcas could capture up to 25 tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year, over a 20 year period. A plantation taking up only about 3% of the Arabian Desert, for example, could absorb in a couple of decades all the CO₂.produced by motor vehicles in Germany over the same period. With about one billion hectares suitable for carbon farming, the method could sequester a significant portion of the CO₂.added to the atmosphere since the industrial revolution.

But there are more advantages. Carbon farming's price tag ranges from 42 to 63 euros per tonne of CO₂. making it competitive with other CO₂.reduction techniques such as carbon capture and storage. Further, after a few years, the plants would produce bioenergy (in the form of tree trimmings) to support the power production required for the desalination and irrigation systems.

"From our point of view, afforestation as a geoengineering option for carbon sequestration is the most efficient and environmentally safe approach for climate change mitigation. Vegetation has played a key role in the global carbon cycle for millions of years, in contrast to many technical and very expensive geoengineering techniques," explains Becker.

The main limitations to implementing this method are lack of funding and little knowledge of the benefits large-scale plantations could have in the regional climate, which can include increase of cloud coverage and rainfall. The newEarth System Dynamics paper presents results of simulations looking into these aspects, but there is still a lack of experimental data on the effects of greening arid regions. Also, potential detrimental effects such as the accumulation of salt in desert soils need to be evaluated carefully.

The team hopes the new research will get enough people informed about carbon farming to establish a pilot project. "We strongly recommend more emphasis is put on this technology -- at both small and large scales -- and that more research is done to investigate its benefits in comparison to other geoengineering approaches," concludes Wulfmeyer.

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Business Booming NAND compensates for rotten PC and TV sales at Toshiba

2013/07/31

Declining PC and TV markets are being compensated for by booming NAND sales at Toshiba

Toshiba made only $248 million profit in calendar Q2 on sales of $14 billion.

Whereas Toshiba’s TV and PC businesses lost a combined $183 million in Q2, NAND made a profit of $488 million.

Toshiba still expects to make $2.6 billion profit in the year to the end of March 2014.

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Polar ecosystems acutely vulnerable to sunlight-driven tipping points

July 31, 2013 — Slight changes in the timing of the annual loss of sea-ice in polar regions could have dire consequences for polar ecosystems, by allowing a lot more sunlight to reach the sea floor.

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The research by scientists at UNSW and the Australian Antarctic Division predicts that biodiversity on some areas of the polar seabed could be reduced by as much as one third within decades, as the poles warm.

The study, Light-driven tipping points in polar ecosystems, will be published in the journal Global Change Biology.

Dr Graeme Clark, of the UNSW School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, says the team's research shows that polar ecosystems may be even more sensitive to climate change than previously thought.

"Even a slight shift in the date of the annual sea-ice departure could cause a tipping point, leading to widespread ecosystem shifts. On the Antarctic coast this may cause unique, invertebrate-dominated communities that are adapted to the dark conditions to be replaced by algal beds, which thrive on light, significantly reducing biodiversity," Dr Clark says.

The invertebrates lost could include sponges, moss animals, sea squirts and worms. These animals perform important functions such as filtering of water and recycling of nutrients and provide a food source for fish and other creatures.

"This is a prime example of the large-scale ecological impacts that humans can impose through global warming -- even in places as remote as Antarctica," says UNSW team member, Associate Professor Emma Johnston.

"Our modelling shows that recent changes in ice and snow cover at the poles have already transformed the amount of light reaching large areas of the Arctic and Antarctic annually."

For the study, the team deployed light meters on the sea floor at seven sites near Casey Station in Antarctica, at depths of up to 10 metres. They used cameras to photograph the coast at midday every day for two and a half years, to determine sea-ice cover.

They determined the growth rates of Antarctic algae in the lab in different light conditions, and conducted experiments in Antarctic waters to test the sensitivity of algae to available light. They also surveyed species living on sub-tidal boulders, to see how communities varied with ice cover.

Tipping points are events where small changes in environmental conditions cause rapid and extensive ecological change.

The amount of sunlight reaching the poles is highly dependent on the seasons because Earth's tilt causes the sun to be above the horizon for considerably longer during summer than winter, and the lower solar angle during winter increases reflectance from the water surface.

"Early melt that brings the date of sea-ice loss closer to midsummer will cause an exponential increase in the amount of sunlight reaching some areas per year," says Dr Clark.

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